1. How does your body know when you’ve had enough?

Your body is an incredibly sophisticated system. Different organs and hormones work together to determine when you have eaten enough. It is not just your stomach: your gut and your brain also play an important role. (2)

A. The stomach detects volume

When you eat, the stomach wall stretches in response to the volume of food. This stretching is detected by nerves, which send signals to the brain indicating that food has entered the stomach. (2)

B. The gut responds to nutrients

When food reaches the intestine, specialised cells respond to its chemical composition, including the presence of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. (2)

C. Hormones send information to the brain

In response to these nutrients, the gut produces different signalling molecules involved in satiety, including hormones, while certain metabolites such as SCFAs (short-chain fatty acids) can also contribute to this signalling. These signals can reach the brain, including via the bloodstream.

The hypothalamus is one of the brain’s regulatory centres involved in determining whether you feel full or want to continue eating. Some of the key players are: (2)

• CCK (cholecystokinin): released relatively quickly during the digestion of fats and proteins and involved in reducing appetite.

• GLP-1 and PYY: these hormones send satiety-related signals to the brain. They are also involved in regulating appetite and the rate at which the stomach empties. (11,12)

Interestingly, GLP-1 and PYY are released in the gastrointestinal tract in response to digested food. Research links both hormones to reduced appetite. GLP-1 also has a well-established effect on slowing gastric emptying. (11,12)

2. What about fibre and other micronutrients, such as vitamins, minerals and polyphenols?

Alongside food volume and hormones, the composition and quality of your diet also play an important role in how long you feel satisfied.

Fibre: physical fullness and bacterial fermentation

Fibre may not provide readily available energy, but it can be one of the most important contributors to longer-lasting satiety. Its effect depends on the type and amount of fibre, the overall food matrix and the individual. (3, 4)

Volume and stretching:

Certain fibres absorb water and swell in the stomach and intestines. This increases physical volume and activates mechanical receptors that send signals of fullness to the brain.

Slower gastric emptying:

Other fibres increase the viscosity of the food mixture, which can help food remain in the stomach for longer and slow the absorption of nutrients in the intestine. (3)

Gut microbiota and fermentation (the prebiotic effect):

Some fibres found in legumes, chia seeds, chicory and other ingredients are fermented in the colon by your own beneficial gut bacteria.

This fermentation produces SCFAs, or short-chain fatty acids, of which acetate, propionate and butyrate are the three main types. We explore these in more detail in another article.

These SCFAs bind to specific receptors in the intestinal wall, including the free fatty acid receptors FFA2 and FFA3. This activates enteroendocrine L-cells, sometimes several hours after eating.

In response to this activation, L-cells release the satiety hormones GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1) and PYY (peptide YY).

GLP-1 has also become widely known because of popular weight-loss medications that mimic the action of this hormone.

These hormones travel through the bloodstream or stimulate nerve pathways, such as the vagus nerve, towards the hypothalamus in the brain, where they help communicate a signal of fullness and reduce appetite.

The response varies from person to person and depends, among other things, on the amount of fibre consumed and the composition of the gut microbiome. (5, 6) Research in this area is still ongoing. (7)

Polyphenols and your gut microbiota: a smart partnership

Polyphenols are plant compounds with antioxidant properties.

In our cookies, they are found naturally in ingredients such as freeze-dried fruit, pure cocoa, dates and grape seed flour (OPC).

Some of these polyphenols are not fully absorbed in the small intestine and continue on to the colon. There, gut bacteria can transform them into other compounds, including SCFAs (short-chain fatty acids). (7)

Inflammation-related processes:

Researchers are also studying how polyphenols may be linked to inflammatory processes through, among other things, the intestinal barrier and the gut microbiome — which is largely made up of your own gut bacteria. (7)

These processes may in turn also be relevant to the functioning of hormones involved in satiety.

Vitamins and minerals: the idea of ‘hidden hunger’

Vitamins and minerals do not directly trigger an acute release of satiety hormones in the same way that fats, proteins or fibre can.

These micronutrients — vitamins and minerals that work at cellular level — nevertheless play an essential role over the long term.

Energy metabolism:

Your cells need micronutrients such as B vitamins, magnesium and iron for the processes that release and use energy from macronutrients — fats, proteins and carbohydrates.

That is why a balanced, nutrient-dense diet based on minimally processed foods is so important.

Nutrient sensing:

Your body has systems that monitor its overall nutritional status.

If your diet is high in calories but relatively low in micronutrients — as can be the case with highly processed foods such as fries or certain snacks — it is possible for signals to persist and for you to continue experiencing hunger.

In biology, this phenomenon is sometimes linked to the idea of ‘hidden hunger’: you may have consumed enough calories, while your cells still ‘need’ essential nutrients because your diet lacks certain vitamins and minerals. (8)

3. Why legumes form the foundation of our cookies

Legumes such as beans and lentils are naturally rich in protein, fibre, vitamins and minerals.

Because of their combination of nutrients, they can contribute to slower digestion and nutrient absorption. This may play a role in how full and satisfied you feel.

They also tend to have a relatively low glycaemic index, which can help support more stable blood glucose levels.

A systematic review and meta-analysis found that meals containing pulses produced satiety ratings that were, on average, around 31% higher than control meals with a similar energy content, without participants eating significantly more at the following meal. (1)

Another study compared a bean-based meal with a beef-based meal containing the same number of calories.

The bean meal contained more fibre but less protein than the beef meal. In that study, no clear differences were found in perceived appetite or in energy intake at a subsequent snack.

This mainly suggests that a fibre-rich bean-based meal, despite containing less protein, may have effects on appetite comparable to those of a beef-based meal. (9)

4. And what about the nuts?

Nuts are a natural source of unsaturated fats, including omega-6 and omega-9 fatty acids, as well as protein, fibre, vitamins, minerals and polyphenols.

They can contribute to a longer-lasting feeling of fullness while also bringing flavour, texture and nutritional value to our cookies.

For us, they are an important part of the overall food matrix. (10)

5. So why can a Bisous be so satisfying?

Not because we built it around one miracle ingredient, but because we designed the cookie differently from the ground up.

It is not about one magic ingredient. It is about the food matrix as a whole.

Legumes behave differently from nuts. Soluble fibre behaves differently from insoluble fibre. Fermentable fibres have yet another set of properties.

Vitamins, minerals, pure cocoa and other plant compounds each have their own role to play.

Not designed to ‘suppress’ hunger,

but built with ingredients that give your body more to work with.

What is this based on?

For those who would like to explore the science in more depth, this information is based in part on the following human studies and systematic reviews.

(1) Pulses & satiety

Li SS et al. Dietary pulses, satiety and food intake: a systematic review and meta-analysis of acute feeding trials. Obesity. 2014;22(8):1773–1780. PMID: 24820437.

(2) Gut-brain signalling, satiety and gut hormones

Moran TH, Dailey MJ. Intestinal feedback signaling and satiety. Physiology & Behavior. 2011.

(3) Fibre type, viscosity & satiety

Wanders AJ et al. Effects of dietary fibre on subjective appetite, energy intake and body weight: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Obesity Reviews. 2011;12(9):724–739. PMID: 21676152.

(4) Dietary fibre & appetite

Clark MJ, Slavin JL. The effect of fiber on satiety and food intake: a systematic review. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2013;32(3):200–211. PMID: 23885994.

(5) Gut microbiota, fermentation & GLP-1

Cani PD et al. Gut microbiota and GLP-1. Diabetes & Metabolism. 2014. PMID: 24789701.

(6) Fermentation, propionate, PYY & GLP-1

Chambers ES et al. Effects of targeted delivery of propionate to the human colon on appetite regulation, body weight maintenance and adiposity in overweight adults. Gut. 2015;64(11):1744–1754. PMID: 25500202.

(7) Polyphenols & gut microbiota

Singh TP et al. Interactions between gut microbiota and polyphenols. Nutrients. 2023. PMID: 37552899.

(8) Hidden hunger & micronutrients

Bain LE et al. The global challenge of hidden hunger: perspectives from the field. Global Health Action. 2021. PMID: 33896431.

(9) Beans versus a beef-based meal

Bonnema AL et al. The Effects of a Beef-Based Meal Compared to a Calorie Matched Bean-Based Meal on Appetite and Food Intake. Journal of Food Science. 2015. PMID: 26270740.

(10) Nuts, hunger & fullness

Akhlaghi M et al. Effect of nuts on energy intake, hunger, and fullness: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2020. PMID: 30422677.

(11) GLP-1, PYY and satiety signals from the gut

Beglinger C, Degen L. Gastrointestinal satiety signals in humans—physiologic roles for GLP-1 and PYY? Physiology & Behavior. 2006;89(4):460–464. PMID: 16828127.

(12) L-cells, nutrients and the gut-brain axis

Spreckley E, Murphy KG. The L-Cell in Nutritional Sensing and the Regulation of Appetite. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2015;2:23. PMID: 26258126.

The studies cited above focus on ingredients, fibre and meals; they provide the scientific foundation for the development of our recipes.